Paths from adverse and benevolent childhood experiences to personal growth after childbirth: The role of psychological distress, social support, and self-compassion.

BACKGROUND: Dealing with the difficulties and demands of the postpartum period may be distressing for the mother, but it is also an opportunity for her to experience personal growth. One factor that may contribute to this growth is the mother's childhood experiences. OBJECTIVE: Using a prospective study design, and based on Belsky's parenting model and personal growth theory, we examined the direct and indirect contribution of mothers' adverse and benevolent childhood experiences and their current psychological distress, self-compassion, and social support to their personal growth following childbirth and motherhood. METHOD: A convenience sample of 392 women was recruited through social media and participated in the study about 16 weeks after childbirth (Phase 1) and again 6-10 months postpartum (Phase 2). FINDINGS: The direct effects of adverse and benevolent childhood experiences on personal growth were not significant. However, multiple significant paths of indirect associations were found through psychological distress, self-compassion, and social support. CONCLUSIONS: To understand the roots of the mother's personal growth, researchers and clinicians alike should not only explore her personal resources, but also the primary processes that contribute to the creation of those resources, that is, childhood experiences. Addressing the mother's childhood experiences may help her to better understand the connections between the past and the present, and to identify the implications of her "ghosts and angels" for her mental state, personal resources, and experience of personal growth. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Contribution of personal and community resources to personal growth of mothers from Israel and Turkey.

AIMS: The transition to parenthood is considered one of the most important milestones in a person's life, bringing with it various changes and challenges. One possible outcome of such a life-altering and stressful event is the experience of personal growth (PG). This study examines the contribution of a mother's personal resources (emotion regulation strategies, resilience) and environmental resources (sense of community) to her PG following the transition to motherhood, taking into account the role played by ethnicity. METHODS: Data was collected from 402 Israeli Arab, Israeli Jewish, and Turkish first-time mothers of babies up to twenty-four months old. RESULTS: It was found that Israeli Arab mothers reported significantly higher expressive suppression and PG than the other two groups. In addition, Israeli Arab mothers scored significantly higher on resilience, and Israeli Jewish mothers scored significantly higher on sense of community, than Turkish mothers. After controlling for mother and baby background variables, cognitive reappraisal and sense of community were found to predict PG. Two interactions emerged: higher sense of community was related to greater PG only among Israeli Arab mothers; and a positive association between resilience and growth was found only among Israeli Jewish mothers. The results are discussed in relation to the literature. CONCLUSION: Personal and environmental resources contribute differently to growth of first-time mothers in different cultures. Thus, rather than implementing the same type of intervention in all cultures, appropriate interventions should be tailored for each culture in accordance with its unique characteristics.

The contribution of adverse childhood experiences to postpartum maternal reflective functioning: A prospective examination of the role of maternal disintegrative responses and personal growth.

BACKGROUND: Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) may negatively impact a mother's parental reflective functioning. However, if coping with this difficulty generates personal growth, it may help her to function in a positive reflective manner with her child. OBJECTIVE: In a two-phase prospective study, we examined a mediation model and a moderated mediation model depicting the contribution of ACE (Phase 1), maternal disintegrative responses (intrusive thoughts and dissociative experiences; Phase 1), and personal growth (Phase 2) to maternal reflective functioning (Phase 2) as expressed in three dimensions: Pre-mentalizing Modes (PM), Certainty about Mental States (CMS), and Interest and Curiosity (IC). METHOD: Three hundred and eighty-five Israeli women participated in the study 16 weeks after childbirth (Phase 1) and again 6-10 months postpartum (Phase 2). FINDINGS: The mediation model revealed that maternal dissociative experiences fully mediated the relationship between ACE and PM, and maternal intrusive thoughts fully mediated the relationship between ACE and CMS. However, the moderated mediation model showed that these mediation relationships were dependent on the level of personal growth reported by the mother. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight the vulnerability of mothers with ACE to function in a less reflective manner, as well as the effect of personal growth on their maternal functioning.

The Maternal Disintegrative Responses Scale (MDRS): Development and initial validation.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to design and examine the validity of the Maternal Disintegrative Responses Scale (MDRS) to assess intrusive thoughts and dissociative experiences in the postpartum period. METHOD: A convenience sample of 455 mothers whose babies were up to 12 months old completed the MDRS and a series of questionnaires assessing postnatal depression (Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale [EPDS]), childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and general symptoms of dissociation. RESULTS: The final scale consists of eight items tapping two dimensions, intrusive thoughts and dissociative experiences, and displays good psychometric properties. Both factors were found to be related to EPDS, PTSD OCD, and general symptoms of dissociation. Primiparous women scored higher than multiparous women on both dimensions, and mothers of infants up to 3 months old scored higher on dissociative experiences than those whose infants were aged 4-12 months. CONCLUSIONS: The MDRS can contribute to the theoretical and practical conceptualization and assessment of these phenomena.

Psychological distress, optimism and emotion regulation among Israeli Jewish and Arab pregnant women during COVID-19.

BACKGROUND: Pregnancy is a vulnerable period for women, and it is especially so under the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. Whereas there is some evidence for distress among pregnant women during the outspread of COVID-19, little is known about the second wave of the pandemic. We therefore sought to examine the contribution of background variables, ethnicity (Jewish, Arab), personal resources (optimism, emotion regulation), and COVID-19-related anxieties to pregnant Israeli women's psychological distress. METHOD: A convenience sample of 1127 Israeli women was recruited from 5 July to 7 October 2020. RESULTS: Not having an academic degree, lower economic status, being an Arab woman, poorer physical health, lower levels of optimism and cognitive reappraisal, higher levels of emotion suppression and COVID-19-related anxieties all contributed significantly to greater psychological distress. Finally, ethnicity moderated the relationship between optimism and emotion suppression and the woman's level of psychological distress. CONCLUSIONS: The findings reveal risk and resilience factors associated with the psychological distress of pregnant women during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic and highlight the potentially greater vulnerability of women from a minority group, showing that ethnicity plays a central role in the way personal resources are related to psychological distress at such times.

The Maternal Disintegrative Responses Scale (MDRS) and its associations with attachment orientation and childhood trauma.

BACKGROUND: The Maternal Disintegrative Responses Scale (MDRS), which examines intrusive thoughts and dissociative experiences among mothers in the postpartum period, has recently been developed and initially validated. OBJECTIVE: In this series of two studies, we sought to further examine the validity and psychometric properties of the MDRS by confirming its factor structure and investigating its associations with insecure attachment and childhood trauma. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Two convenience samples were recruited through social media. Participants in Study 1 consisted of 249 women aged 19 to 43 (M = 30.10, SD = 4.90) whose infants were up to 12 months old. Participants in Study 2 consisted of 637 women aged 20 to 46 (M = 31.43, SD = 4.81) whose infants were up to 16 weeks old. METHOD: The participants completed a set of self-report questionnaires. In Study 1 we assessed trait anxiety, attachment orientation, the MDRS, and a background inventory. In Study 2 we assessed psychological distress, childhood trauma, the MDRS, and a background inventory. RESULTS: In both studies, the factor structure of the MDRS was confirmed. In addition, insecure attachment and childhood trauma were both related to the MDRS factors, above and beyond the woman's background characteristics and current level of anxiety or distress. CONCLUSIONS: The studies indicate the value of the MDRS as a promising, valid, and theory-based questionnaire for mothers following childbirth.

Posttraumatic growth in the wake of COVID-19 among Jewish and Arab pregnant women in Israel.

OBJECTIVE: On the assumption that coping with a crisis from a position of vulnerability may elicit not only negative but also positive outcomes, this study examined posttraumatic growth (PTG) among Jewish and Arab pregnant women 6-7 months into the COVID-19 pandemic, exploring the contribution of ethnicity, personal resources (intolerance of uncertainty, optimism, and self-compassion), and COVID-19-related anxieties. In addition, the moderating roles of ethnicity, optimism, and self-compassion were examined. METHOD: A convenience sample of 916 Israeli women (517 Jewish, 399 Arab) was recruited from July 5 to October 7, 2020. through women's forums on social media. The participants completed an electronic questionnaire through Qualtrics software. RESULTS: Arab women reported significantly higher PTG, COVID-19-related anxieties, optimism, and self-compassion than Jewish women. A 6-step hierarchical regression that was performed to determine the contribution of the independent variables to PTG revealed that younger age, being primiparous, being an Arab, optimism, self-compassion, and COVID-19-related anxieties were associated with greater PTG. Furthermore, a positive association between intolerance of uncertainty and PTG was found among Jewish, but not Arab women. Finally, the positive association between intolerance of uncertainty and PTG was stronger among women reporting higher self-compassion. CONCLUSIONS: The study sheds light on the potential for the positive outcome of PTG in the wake of the prolonged COVID-19 crisis and highlights the contribution of vulnerability and personal resources. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Contributors to COVID-19-Related Childbirth Anxiety among Pregnant Women in Two Pandemic Waves.

COVID-19 has impacted all levels of daily life for people everywhere, with particularly serious implications for pregnant women. This paper examines the COVID-19-related childbirth anxiety (CCA) of Israeli women in the first two waves of the pandemic. We first present two psychotherapeutic case studies with pregnant women in the two waves. This is followed by an empirical study that compared the contribution of background variables, psychological distress, economic concerns, and personal resources to CCA in two samples, Wave 1, March-April 2020 (n = 403) and Wave 2, September-October 2020 (n = 1401), and two subpopulations, Jewish and Arab women. Findings reveal that CCA was significantly lower in Wave 2 than in Wave 1. Furthermore, poorer health, higher education, being an Arab, later gestational week, at-risk pregnancy, wave, higher psychological distress, greater economic concerns, and lower self-compassion contributed to higher childbirth anxiety. Wave moderated the association between optimism and anxiety. The findings of the empirical study, together with insights from the case studies, provide evidence of a decrease in CCA later in the crisis, and indicate the significance of resources for coping with the psychological implications of the pandemic. Moreover, they suggest the importance of empowering self-reliance techniques, such as self-compassion, which was significantly associated with lower anxiety, above and beyond the background and psychological variables. Clinical Impact Statement: Using both psychotherapeutic cases and empirical findings, this study points to the risk and resilience factors that contributed to pregnant women's COVID-19-related childbirth anxiety (CCA) in the first two waves of the pandemic. The study suggests that CCA was higher in the first wave, as well as among women from a minority group. At the same time, the research shows that resilience resources of optimism and self-compassion contributed to the reduction of anxiety. These findings may guide interventions for the vulnerable group of pregnant women in times of crisis.

Personal growth in early pregnancy: the role of perceived stress and emotion regulation.

OBJECTIVE: Coping with the stress aroused by early pregnancy can not only result in distress, but may constitute an opportunity to experience personal growth. Relying on the model of posttraumatic growth, this study examined the contribution of perceived stress and emotion regulation to women's personal growth during the first trimester of pregnancy. METHOD: A convenience sample of Israeli women (n=170), who were during their first trimester of pregnancy (up to 13 weeks), over 18 years old, and capable to completing the instruments in Hebrew, were recruited through a women's health clinic and through social media during the years 2017-2019. RESULTS: The findings indicate that primiparous mothers report higher personal growth than multiparous. In addition, younger age, being primiparous, and higher cognitive-reappraisal contributed to greater personal growth. Moreover, a curvilinear association was found between perceived stress and personal growth, so that a medium level of stress was associated with the highest level of growth. Finally, cognitive-reappraisal fully mediated the relationship between perceived stress and personal growth. CONCLUSIONS: The findings add to the growing body of knowledge concerning the implications of early pregnancy in general, and personal growth as a result of dealing with the stress typical of this period in particular and highlight the role of the perceived stress as well as the woman's personal characteristics and resources that contribute to this result.

Parenthood in the shadow of COVID-19: The contribution of gender, personal resources and anxiety to first time parents' perceptions of the infant.

We sought to examine new parents' perceptions of their infant during the worldwide spread of COVID-19, exploring the contribution of gender, personal resources (attachment orientation, presence of meaning in life and intolerance of uncertainty) and COVID-19-related anxieties. A convenience sample of 606 Israeli first-time parents (137 fathers and 469 mothers), whose child was 3-12 months old, was recruited through social media during April 2020. Findings indicate that being a woman, younger age, lower education, better physical health, older infant's age, lower attachment anxiety, higher presence of meaning in life and greater COVID-19-related anxiety over the infant's health contributed significantly to a greater perception of infant's warmth; being a father, higher education and economic status, poorer physical health, higher attachment anxiety and intolerance of uncertainty and less presence of meaning in life contributed significantly to a greater perception of infant's invasiveness. Gender moderated the associations between the personal resources and infant's perception, and both the presence of meaning in life and intolerance of uncertainty mediated the associations between COVID-19-related anxieties and parent's perception of the infant. The findings reveal the crucial contribution of gender, and both risk and resilience factors, to the parent's perception of the infant in the shadow of COVID-19.

Parenting stress among new parents before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The outbreak of COVID-19 has forced parents to deal with a challenging crisis, which may have increased their stress levels, negatively affecting their parenting and putting their infants at risk of abuse. OBJECTIVE: To examine the contribution of the pandemic to parenting stress, exploring differences in parenting stress among new parents before and during the crisis, the role of background and personal variables, and the possibility that the study phase moderated the associations of gender and personal resources with parenting stress. METHOD: Israeli parents (n = 1591) whose first child was 3-12 months old were recruited twice through social media: in 2019, before the spread of COVID-19 (n = 985); and in March 2020, during the pandemic (n = 606). RESULTS: Sociodemographic variables, perception of the childbirth as traumatic, lower meaning in life, higher search for meaning, less marital satisfaction, and study phase all contributed to greater parenting stress. In addition, the association between gender and stress was moderated by study phase, with fathers reporting a greater increase in stress during the pandemic. Moreover, only during the pandemic did fathers report higher parenting stress than mothers. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight the vulnerability of new parents of young infants to parenting stress during the crisis, and the special attention which should be paid to fathers. They indicate the value of strengthening meaning in life and preserving good marital relationships as resources that help to cope with the heightened parenting stress at this time.

Meaning in Life among New Mothers before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Mothers' Marital Satisfaction and Perception of the Infant.

On the assumption that existential questions may arise in the face of the transition to motherhood in the shadow of a global crisis, we sought to compare the levels of presence of meaning and search for meaning in life between two samples of new mothers: one recruited before the outbreak of COVID-19, and the other during the pandemic. In addition, we examined the associations between mother's marital satisfaction and perception of the infant on the one hand, and the two aspects of meaning in life on the other, investigating whether these variables mediate the link between research group and meaning in life. The results indicate that mothers reported significantly higher perception of infant's warmth and presence of meaning before than during the pandemic. Furthermore, they displayed greater marital satisfaction and more search for meaning during the pandemic than prior to it. For the whole sample, higher marital satisfaction and perception of infant's warmth were related to higher presence of meaning, and lower marital satisfaction and perception of the infant's invasiveness were related to higher search for meaning. Finally, mother's marital satisfaction and perception of the infant fully mediated the relationship between the research group and the two aspects of meaning in life. These findings are significant in that they provide, for the first time, evidence of changes in meaning in life among new mothers in a crisis situation, along with the importance of their perceptions of their relationships with the infant and spouse under these circumstances.

Personal growth of single mothers by choice in the transition to motherhood: a comparative study.

Objective: In view of the heightened stress that might accompany a woman's decision to have a child on her own, we examined the experience of personal growth following the transition to motherhood of single mothers by choice and a comparison group of mothers in a couple relationship. We also examined the contribution of attachment style, resilience, and perceived social support to mothers' personal growth.Method: The sample consisted of 152 first-time Israeli mothers aged 28-48 whose children were no older than two. Of them, 76 were single mothers by choice and 76 were in a couple relationship.Results: Single mothers reported higher personal growth and less support from a significant other than mothers in a relationship. In addition, higher age, better economic status, and being a single mother contributed significantly to personal growth. Furthermore, among mothers in a relationship, higher growth was associated with more perceived support from the family, whereas among single mothers, it was associated with more perceived support from a significant other.Conclusion: The results highlight the potential of single mothers by choice to experience personal growth in the transition to motherhood, and the prominent role of support from a significant other in facilitating this experience.

Childbirth anxieties in the shadow of COVID-19: Self-compassion and social support among Jewish and Arab pregnant women in Israel.

The study examined two angles of childbirth anxieties of Jewish and Arab pregnant women in Israel during the COVID-19 pandemic (March-April, 2020). Specifically, we examined the contribution of personal resources: self-compassion and perceived social support, as well as a couple of COVID-19-related fears of being infected and concern for the foetus, to both the woman's global fear of childbirth (FOC) and her COVID-19-related childbirth anxiety. Participants were Jewish and Arab pregnant women (n = 403) aged 20-47, who completed a set of structured self-report questionnaires from 18 March to 9 April 2020. Findings indicated that Arab women reported higher level of COVID-19-related childbirth anxiety and COVID-19-related fears of being infected and concern for the foetus. In addition, poorer health, being an Arab woman, being in the third trimester, lower self-compassion, and higher COVID-19-related fears contributed significantly to greater COVID-19-related childbirth anxiety. Furthermore, poorer health, being primiparous, at-risk pregnancy, lower self-compassion and higher fear of being infected contributed significantly to greater FOC. Importantly, social support was found to moderate the association between self-compassion and FOC. The results highlight the need to be attentive to pregnant women in times of crisis, and in particular to especially vulnerable subgroups, such as cultural minorities. They also highlight the importance of personal resources that may be applied in targeted interventions to reduce distress in vulnerable populations.

Jewish and Arab pregnant women's psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic: the contribution of personal resources.

OBJECTIVE: The study sought to examine the psychological distress of Israeli pregnant women during the worldwide spread of COVID-19. As Israel has a diverse cultural-religious population, the sample included both Jewish and Arab women, allowing us to explore the differences between them. Furthermore, we examined the contribution of personal resources, both internal (self-mastery and resilience) and external (perceived social support), as well as the level of infection-related anxiety to the women's psychological distress. METHOD: A convenience sample of 403 Israeli women (233 Jewish and 170 Arab) was recruited through social media. RESULTS: Arab women reported significantly higher infection-related anxiety and psychological distress than Jewish women. In addition, Jewish women reported significantly higher self-mastery than Arab pregnant women. Finally, poorer health, being an Arab woman, and lower levels of self-mastery, resilience, and perceived social support, as well as a higher level of infection-related anxiety, contributed significantly to greater psychological distress. CONCLUSIONS: The findings show that pregnant women in general may be at risk of psychological distress in times of crisis, and that minority populations in particular may be at greater risk than others. Moreover, the results highlight the contribution of women's personal and environmental resources in the face of crisis, an understanding that may be used in targeted interventions to reduce distress in vulnerable populations.

Distress and anxiety associated with COVID-19 among Jewish and Arab pregnant women in Israel.

INTRODUCTION: The fact that little is yet known about the possible implications of COVID-19 for pregnancy, puts pregnant women at greater risk of heightened anxiety and psychological distress. In this study, we sought to explore the psychological distress and COVID-19-related anxiety of pregnant women during the crisis. METHODS: Israeli Jewish and Arab pregnant women (n = 336) aged 20-47 completed a set of questionnaires during the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020. RESULTS: The levels of all COVID-19-related anxieties were quite high (much or very much), with the highest regarding public places and transportation (87.5%, 70%, respectively), followed by concerns over the possible infection of other family members and the health of the foetus (71.7%, 70%, respectively), going for pregnancy check-ups (68.7%,), being infected themselves, and the delivery (59.2%, 55.4%, respectively). Although COVID-19-related anxieties were shared by pregnant women characterised by diverse sociodemographic variables, with very small nuances, Arab women were more anxious about each of the issues than Jewish women. DISCUSSION: Our findings highlight the importance of assessing anxiety and distress in pregnant women during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as the need to be attentive to the double stress of pregnant women in times of crisis and to the potential vulnerability of subgroups, such as cultural minorities.

Early Maternal Caregiving: A Conceptualization of Maternal Compassion Preoccupation.

The literature refers extensively to the ramifications of the mother's care on her infant. However, little attention has been paid to the effects of maternal caregiving on the emotional experience of the mother herself. Using grounded theory methodology, we sought to contribute to fill this gap, and conducted open indepth interviews with 20 Israeli mothers of infants up to 3 months of age. Three core categories emerged from the interviews: Difficulty, Pleasure and Satisfaction, and Concern for Personal Needs. We found these categories to parallel three theoretical concepts relating to caregivers in general: compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, and self-compassion. Consequently, we propose a new inclusive theoretical concept termed Maternal Compassion Preoccupation. The findings and conceptualization can contribute to the theoretical knowledge associated with early maternal caregiving, and to a new perspective on interventions aimed at helping women to cope with the high care demands of early motherhood.